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2036-2045
The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) establishes long-term human operations
The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) is a Moon base constructed at the lunar south pole, initially uncrewed and robotic but later involving humans on increasingly long duration stays. Led by China, the ILRS attracts international partners such as Russia who contribute various components.
The Chang'e series of probes, beginning in 2007, allowed China to gain experience with orbital manoeuvres and the lunar surface environment. The first two of these missions formed Phase I of its Lunar Exploration Program. Chang'e 3 and 4, which formed Phase II, involved soft landings and the deployment of rovers. Phase III followed with Chang'e 5-T1 and Chang'e 5, the latter in 2020 which became China's first sample return mission.
China intended a fourth phase to serve as preparation for a lunar research station. Chang'e 6, launched in 2024, investigated the topography, composition and subsurface structure of a landing site at the south pole, and returned samples from this region to Earth. Its successor, Chang'e 7, explored the polar environment in more detail. This mission included an orbiter, lander, rover, and mini-flying probe. Chang'e 8 followed in 2027 and became the most advanced lunar mission ever attempted by China. In addition to a lander, rover, and flying detector, it featured 3D printing using in-situ resource utilisation. This experiment demonstrated the test-building of a structure necessary for a lunar base.
By 2030, China had completed its robotic Lunar Exploration Program and begun shifting to more human-oriented missions. The Long March 9 super-heavy lift launch vehicle dramatically expanded the country's capabilities in space. With a payload capacity of 50,000 kg for trans-lunar injection, very large cargoes could now be delivered to the surface.
Following the earlier demonstration by Chang'e 8, more activity occurred around the site. Subsequent machines with more sophisticated construction techniques established the beginnings of a temporary lunar base. A major landmark in China's history occurred at this time with its first astronauts walking on the Moon.
China intended to sustain a more permanent presence on the lunar surface and worked to develop the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), by far its most ambitious undertaking yet. This would include support for longer-term, larger-scale scientific research, technical experiments and the development and utilisation of lunar resources, as well as habitat modules, solar energy generation, and vehicles for exploring beyond the site. By the late 2030s, it has begun to welcome human crews on long duration stays.*
Like its NASA counterpart, the south pole is a favoured location for the ILRS, due to permanently sunlit spots with near-continuous solar energy, as well as permanently shadowed craters known to contain water and other volatiles; a result of the Moon's axis of rotation. Roscosmos* and other international partners are involved in the ILRS, which continues to expand and develop into the 2040s.* By 2045, China begins to shift its focus away from the Moon and onto Mars.*
China Moon base of the 2030s. Credit: China Academy of Space Technology (CAST)
2036-2040
Transhuman sports competitors
By the late 2030s, genetic therapies and bio-technological implants have become so cheap, accessible and mainstream that it has dramatically altered the world of sports and recreation. A combination of personalised DNA sequencing (now ubiquitous), gene-editing options like CRISPR, and smart drug delivery methods has led to the gradual acceptance of do-it-yourself biology and the destigmatisation of performance-enhancing techniques. New forms of robotic and cybernetic integration are also seeing widespread use, pushing the boundaries of human ability.
In 2016, the first "cybathlon" had taken place in Zurich, Switzerland.** This competition was designed to offer amputees and other disabled people the chance to upgrade their physical abilities, using experimental prototypes from research labs and commercially successful products from large companies. These included exoskeletons to make stepping easier for paraplegics, as well as sensors implanted in athletes' bodies to directly control machines. Subsequent years would see major advances in prosthetics and other devices, some of which were officially introduced into sports. Initially confined to those with disabilities, the various upgrades eventually began to match and even exceed the capabilities of normal humans. Alongside breakthroughs in gene therapy and stem cells, this led to many public debates and conversations about the legality of bodily enhancements, with calls to provide options for regular, able-bodied competitors.
In addition to a more dynamic and exciting Paralympics, a third "super athlete" event category is a feature of the 2036 and 2040 Olympics.** This aims to showcase a new generation of enhanced "transhumans" with superior strength, speed and endurance. While something of a novelty at first, the event is soon taken seriously and becomes a permanent fixture, drawing in huge audiences and sponsorship deals. With sport becoming ever more commercialised each year, transhumans are heavily funded and sponsored by pharmaceutical, biotech, electronics and other firms marketing their products and services.
The new abilities offered to super athletes are numerous and diverse.* Treatments are available to increase red blood cell counts, thus boosting oxygen delivery by up to 50% and providing greater endurance. Genes can be altered to block pain pathways in nerves, allowing athletes to play through pain. Deactivating the MSTN gene can double muscle mass, while the PEPCK gene can be tweaked to burn fatty acid for energy without producing lactic acid, meaning athletes can run at top speed for 60% longer. Modifying the LRP5 gene can increase bone density, while the TNC and COL5A1 genes can improve resistance to tendon and ligament injury. Most athletes can now recover from injuries within days, rather than weeks or months.
These and other treatments are now safe and legal – and used not just in athletics, but a whole range of sports and recreational activities. Whereas in the past, success was determined to some extent by the genetic lottery, a more level playing field is now possible with drugs being administered to specific, pre-determined amounts for each competitor.
Other changes in the world of sport include dramatic improvements to stadium infrastructure. Advances in ultra-lightweight carbon fibre allow morphing of buildings, roofs and tracks, to cater for any event. Giant, flexible video screens can be integrated on walls and other surfaces, along with massive holographic displays for action replays. Nanotechnology used on track surfaces and in sports equipment can improve grip, or create lighter structures. Driverless cars remove the need for dedicated parking lots, meaning a stadium's footprint can be shrunk considerably, or alternatively used for greater capacity with some having 250,000 seats. Artificial intelligence can choose seats based on social media contacts or other factors, while facial recognition can monitor for signs of trouble and prevent criminal activity.
For those watching from home, highly immersive VR and other options are now available. For example, some players now wear contact lenses featuring built-in cameras that can stream video to provide a first-person view of the action.
2036-2038
Cultivated beef and chicken become cost-competitive
Cultivated meat, also known as lab-grown meat, is a form of cellular agriculture that involves growing animal cells in controlled bioreactors to produce meat, rather than raising and slaughtering whole animals.
Scientists first demonstrated the concept publicly with a €250,000 beef burger in 2013,* before dozens of start-ups entered the field during the investment and publicity boom of the late 2010s. Singapore authorised the first cultivated chicken product for sale in 2020, while the United States, Israel, and other early markets granted further approvals over the next few years.* These launches drew considerable public and commercial interest, but producers could supply only tiny quantities, often as expensive hybrid products containing both cultivated cells and plant ingredients.
The industry then entered a difficult period. Expensive growth media, relatively slow cell growth, difficulty achieving high cell densities, contamination risks and the cost of sterile production facilities hindered large-scale expansion. Creating realistic whole cuts of meat added further technical complexity. A wider downturn in venture capital funding compounded these problems. Investment fell sharply during the early and mid-2020s, while many companies reduced their workforces, postponed factories, changed direction or disappeared altogether. Regulators moved cautiously, some jurisdictions even banned the technology, and many consumers remained wary of meat from industrial bioreactors.
Nevertheless, the potential benefits of meat grown from cells remained immense. Studies suggested that, if produced at commercial scale with low-carbon energy, cultivated meat could reduce land use by 95%, water use by 78% and overall climate impacts by up to 92% compared with conventional beef, while avoiding the routine slaughter of billions of animals.
Credit: zapp2photo
A leaner and more practical industry began to emerge. Researchers developed cheaper animal-free growth media and made progress in creating more robust and productive cell lines, alongside continuous production systems that used filtration to retain the cells while refreshing their growth medium. In 2024, a team at Tufts University engineered bovine muscle cells to produce their own growth signals, offering a way to remove some of the most expensive ingredients from the culture medium.* A separate study that same year modelled cultivated chicken at $6.20 per pound in a theoretical 50,000-litre facility, placing its estimated production cost within the price range of organic chicken.* In 2026, French company Parima and Australian producer Vow reported a multi-tonne production run of cultivated duck using a 22,000-litre production line.* These advances helped improve yields and reduce costs, although reliable mass production remained a significant challenge. While resistance continued elsewhere, regulators in several countries began to establish clearer guidance and approval pathways covering products made from chicken, beef, pork fat, salmon and quail.
Over the following decade, manufacturers gradually overcame many of the remaining short- and medium-term obstacles. Better sensors, automation and quality controls reduced contamination and batch failures, while improved cell lines, cheaper media and more efficient bioreactors raised yields and lowered energy, labour and ingredient costs. Regulators in a growing number of countries introduced clearer rules for safety testing, labelling and inspection, giving producers greater certainty and encouraging renewed investment. Chefs and food companies also helped familiarise consumers with the technology, as improvements in taste, texture and appearance made the products more appealing. High-end restaurants became an important bridge between laboratory demonstrations and mass retail. By the mid-2030s, the cost of producing cultivated meat had declined by several orders of magnitude since the €250,000 prototype burger of 2013, and the industry had progressed from isolated experiments to a growing network of commercial facilities.
From 2036 to 2038, cultivated chicken is beginning to match the retail price of conventional chicken,* while cultivated ground beef is reaching the wholesale cost of its conventional equivalent. The market is expanding rapidly* from a relatively small base, as supermarkets, restaurant chains and caterers add these products and more countries authorise their production and sale. Conventional meat still accounts for the vast majority of global consumption, particularly in regions with limited manufacturing capacity, but the balance has begun to shift. In wealthier and more environmentally conscious societies, choosing slaughter-based meat when a comparable cultivated alternative exists begins to carry a social stigma, especially among younger consumers. This cultural change remains gradual and subtle rather than abrupt, as price, flavour, tradition and availability continue to influence what people eat.
During the 2040s and 2050s, cultivated meat will become commonplace across much of the world.* As production systems become cheaper, more compact and easier to operate, they will gradually spread beyond wealthy countries, particularly to regions where land scarcity, water stress and growing urban demand place pressure on conventional agriculture. Cultivated beef, chicken and pork will account for much of the industry's output, while cultivated fish will form another major branch of the market. Duck, lamb, shellfish and more specialised meats will also become increasingly available, alongside realistic whole cuts and cheaper processed varieties.
By the late 21st century, cultivated products will supply most of the meat and seafood consumed worldwide, while traditional farming, hunting and fishing will persist mainly in premium, heritage and specialist markets. This transition will release vast areas of pasture and feed cropland, reduce pressure on forests and water supplies, lower greenhouse gas emissions and spare many billions of animals from intensive farming and slaughter.
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2036
Supercomputers reach the zettascale
Supercomputers are now 1,000 times more powerful than in 2022.* The fastest machines are reaching 1021 floating point operations per second (FLOPS). This is known as zettascale computing, which follows the previous exascale regime.
A supercomputer running on 1 zettaFLOPS is capable of full weather modelling over a two-week period.* The cliché of people complaining of inaccurate forecasts is fading from public discourse, as more and more weather agencies upgrade their monitoring systems. Climate change models are also becoming more accurate than ever before, further reducing the uncertainties over temperature rises and future impacts. This is placing even greater pressure on governments and businesses to take meaningful action.
Zettascale computing can also dramatically reduce the time needed for astrophysical simulations of rare phenomena, such as black holes, neutron star mergers and supernovae. For example, 3D model calculations of shock wave instability from the collapsing core of a supernova – which took a million processor-hours to run on petaFLOPS machines and 1,000 hours on exaFLOPS machines – can now be performed in just one hour.*
At the microscopic scale, biological research is moving from "proof of concept simulations" to "production simulations". While the former can represent short trajectories on large systems containing many millions of atoms, or millisecond trajectories on ultra-simplistic systems, the latter enables large systems embedded in complex biological environments to be well sampled. Not only can the folding of large proteins be observed, but the entire cell proteome and the dynamics of entire signal transduction pathways.* This is revealing the mechanisms behind aging, cellular senescence and many other aspects of biology in greater detail than ever before.
Alongside these conventional applications, intelligent computing applications such as deep learning continue to emerge. Processor designs in zettascale systems are therefore taking mixed-precision arithmetic (numbers with varying widths in a single operation) into greater consideration to support more varied workloads. Micro-architectures are evolving to consist of increasingly diverse and heterogeneous components, with many forms of specialised accelerators – including new paradigms like quantum computing – co-existing to boost performance. New interconnect materials such as photonic crystals are enabling fully optical-interconnecting systems to come into use, leading to more scalable, high-speed, and low-cost interconnection. Memristors are also being deployed to close the gap between storage and computing.*
Despite new cooling systems and other efficiency improvements, the power requirements for zettascale computing are huge. Some have peak consumption upwards of 100 megawatts (MW), enough to power a small city, and more than triple the figure of Japan's Fugaku, the world's fastest machine in 2021.
Lemurs are on the brink of extinction
After years of decline, the vast majority of the world's 103 species of lemur are facing extinction. This has been the result of decades of sustained deforestation, mining, hunting, and slash-and-burn farming on Madagascar – their only natural habitat on the planet. By now, very little of the island's original forest cover remains. This has forced lemurs and countless other species into increasingly small and isolated patches of liveable habitat.*
In earlier decades, a number of efforts were undertaken which attempted to preserve the remaining populations. The effectiveness of these projects was severely limited by the social and political climate of Madagascar. Government corruption and the impotence of law enforcement meant that any restrictions on deforestation and poaching were poorly enforced or outright ignored. The extreme poverty of the nation also forced many inhabitants to turn to the forests to illegally cut wood or dig for gold in order to support themselves. Many hunted lemurs for food as well.
Today, the majority of remaining individuals can be found only in zoos and private collections. Lemurs are now joining the ranks of the radiated tortoise* and many other species disappearing from Madagascar. By the middle of the 21st century the island will have experienced one of the most dramatic mass extinctions in human history. This will occur alongside many similar events throughout the natural world.*
Contact with the Voyager probes is lost
By 2036,* contact with the Voyager probes finally comes to an end, bringing one of the longest and most remarkable missions in the history of space exploration to a close. Launched in 1977, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 far exceeded their original design lifetimes, remaining operational for nearly six decades as they journeyed into interstellar space.
Voyager 1 is the farthest human-made object from Earth, travelling nearly 16 billion miles (26 billion km) away, or over 170 times the distance between the Sun and Earth. Both spacecraft left the heliosphere years earlier and continued returning unique measurements of the interstellar medium, providing humanity with its first direct observations from beyond the protective influence of the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic field.
The mission did not end in a single moment, but faded out in stages. During the second half of the 2020s, the Voyagers ceased returning science data as dwindling electrical power forced mission controllers to shut down instruments one by one. Engineers prioritised the fields and particles instruments most relevant to interstellar space, but even these eventually fell silent as output from the probes' radioisotope thermoelectric generators continued to decline.
This staged shutdown plan replaced earlier expectations of a sudden loss of contact. Instead of attempting to keep all instruments operating until a hard cutoff, mission managers deliberately powered down systems incrementally, conserving enough energy to keep transmissions going for as long as possible. As a result, while scientific measurements largely ended by the mid-2020s, the Voyagers continued returning engineering and telemetry data for many years afterward, allowing Earth-based teams to monitor spacecraft health, orientation, and power levels.
Engineers also extended the mission through careful management of aging subsystems. In 2025, controllers revived a set of long-dormant backup thrusters on Voyager 1 to help maintain antenna pointing and preserve its ability to communicate with Earth. Combined with a systematic shutdown of non-essential systems, these measures stretched the probes' communicative lifetimes well beyond earlier projections.
By the mid-2030s, however, the remaining power supply is dropping below the threshold required to operate the transmitters themselves. One by one, the final carrier signals fade as both spacecraft lose the ability to send even their basic engineering data. When the last transmission disappears, contact with the Voyagers ends permanently.
However, each probe continues its silent journey through the galaxy, carrying a gold-plated audio-visual disc intended as a message from Earth to any potential future finders. Voyager 1 will reach the inner Oort Cloud by 2310, and pass near the red dwarf star Gliese 445 around the year 42,000 AD, while Voyager 2 will drift near Sirius in 298,000 AD.
The Venera-D mission arrives at Venus
Venera-D is a Russian-led space mission to study the atmosphere and surface of Venus, with the primary aim of understanding the planet's history, climate evolution and potential past habitability. Russian scientists first proposed the mission to the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2003, with early studies envisioning a possible launch in the 2010s. Repeated delays and redesigns pushed the schedule back by more than two decades.
Russia finally launches the spacecraft in 2036,* with arrival at Venus later the same year. The mission consists of three main components: an orbiter, a balloon platform operating in the upper atmosphere, and a surface lander.
The orbiter carries advanced spectrometers, radar instruments and atmospheric sensors. These systems map the planet's surface at far higher resolution than earlier missions such as Venera 15 and 16 in the 1980s and NASA's Magellan in the 1990s. The orbiter studies the composition and structure of the atmosphere and clouds, the radiative balance that drives the extreme greenhouse effect, and the behaviour of the ionosphere and magnetosphere. It also measures how gases escape into space and investigates the long-standing mystery of atmospheric super-rotation, in which high-altitude winds circle the planet in just a few days while surface winds remain comparatively slow.
The balloon operates within the more temperate layers of Venus's atmosphere, where pressures and temperatures are far less extreme than at the surface. It drifts with the winds at altitudes of around 50–60 kilometres, analysing atmospheric chemistry, cloud structure and dynamic processes over an extended period. By remaining airborne for much longer than a descent probe, it provides continuous in situ measurements of wind speeds, turbulence and chemical composition, offering a detailed picture of the planet's climate system. It also searches for possible signs of microbial life in the clouds, following earlier, disputed detections of phosphine and ammonia in Venus's atmosphere.*
The lander descends to the surface and investigates the geology and chemistry of Venusian terrain, landing in a tessera region – an ancient, highly deformed highland that preserves clues about the planet's early history. This terrain represents a remnant of a time when Venus had a very different climate, which may have included liquid water. The mission returns the first surface data from Venus since the Soviet Vega 2 mission in 1985, over half a century earlier. Its cameras return images of a dim, orange-lit landscape of fractured rock beneath a dense, crushing atmosphere.
Venus presents some of the most extreme conditions in the Solar System, with surface temperatures around 460 °C, pressures more than 90 times that of Earth and clouds of sulphuric acid. Earlier landers survived for little more than an hour, but Venera-D uses more robust electronics and thermal protection systems to extend operational time.
The mission marks a renewed Russian focus on Venus exploration and contributes to a broader international resurgence of interest in the planet during the 2030s, alongside missions such as NASA's DAVINCI and VERITAS and ESA's EnVision. Data from Venera-D helps scientists refine models of Venus's climate evolution and better understand why Earth and Venus, despite their similar size and composition, followed such dramatically different paths.
Credits: O'Rourke, J.G., Wilson, C.F., Borrelli, M.E. et al., CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons (left). NASA/JPL-Caltech (right).
China's first mission to Neptune
Neptune Explorer is a nuclear-powered spacecraft developed by the China National Space Administration (CNSA). Launched in 2030 and remaining operational for at least 15 years, it uses a gravity assist around Jupiter before arriving at Neptune in 2036.*
To reliably provide electricity for its long mission duration, a Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) is used. This nuclear battery, similar to that of recent Mars rovers, converts heat energy from the decay of radioactive material into electricity, offering a 10-kilowatt energy (kWe) capacity.
The spacecraft enters into a polar orbit around Neptune. Its primary science objectives include global remote sensing and studying Neptune's internal structure, atmospheric composition and motion characteristics, the magnetic field, the solar wind, and the planet's moons and ring system. Neptune has the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System – reaching 2,100 km/h (1,300 mph) – and the cause of these powerful hurricanes is revealed, as well as the reason for the formation and long-term presence of the so-called Great Dark Spot.
The probe reveals new insights relating to the Solar System's formation, early history, and possible future. For instance, evidence is found to show how Neptune's large volumes of gas influenced the protostellar nebula and the eventual positioning of planets closer to the Sun.
The ice giant's largest moon, Triton, is also studied in greater detail than ever before. Only 40% of its surface had been imaged by Voyager 2, so new images of the previously unphotographed sides are captured, at much higher resolution too. The probe generates a trove of scientific data on the moon's geophysical activity and plumes, liquid subsurface environment, and ice cap of frozen nitrogen and methane (the coldest place in the Solar System). It also provides new clues as to Triton's origin and whether it originally formed as a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, before gravitational capture by Neptune, possibly causing the breakup of Neptune's existing satellites and the formation of new, smaller ones.
Four microsatellites weighing a total of 100 kg (220 lbs) are deployed from the main craft. Two are released en route to Neptune to visit a main belt and a centaur-class asteroid (the latter being small, orbit-crossing bodies lying between Jupiter and Neptune). Two more are used as penetrators, one targeting Neptune's atmosphere and the other Triton.
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References
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https://spacenews.com/china-is-aiming-to-attract-partners-for-an-international-lunar-research-station/
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http://motherboard.vice.com/read/the-new-bionic-sports-of-the-future-transhumanist-olympics
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https://futuretimeline.net/blog/2013/08/5.htm
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Accessed 5th August 2026.
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Accessed 5th August 2026.
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https://www.systemiq.earth/future-of-food/
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Accessed 5th August 2026.
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http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/madagascar/10252191/
Accessed 27th August 2013.
24 See 2029.
25 See 2045-2050.
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Accessed 3rd January 2026.
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Accessed 26th October 2022.
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